Across Europe, the push for language proficiency as part of citizenship and residency requirements is gaining momentum. Several European countries are increasingly mandatorily requiring individuals to demonstrate knowledge of the local language, highlighting its significance as intertwined with national identity.
One notable example is France, which passed legislation in 2024 necessitating French language tests for specific residency cards. Sweden is also following suit, moving forward with its own language requirements for citizenship. Italy, not to be overlooked, introduced language tests for individuals applying for naturalization through marriage just a few years back. Meanwhile, the political climate has shifted across the Atlantic, with former President Donald Trump signing legislation to establish English as the official language of the United States.
But what drives this trend? According to Carmen Silvestri, a linguist and postdoctoral researcher at the University of Reading, this phenomenon can be linked to the rise of nationalist sentiments across Europe. Silvestri states, "This trend is not surprising...given the rise of nationalist parties." This is particularly pertinent as languages are often viewed as fundamental components of national identity and belonging, historically tracing back to the formation of the nation-state between the 1700s and 1800s. Silvestri elaborates, citing, "Nationalism remains the foundation of the nation-state… there is no nationalism without 'social glue,' and language is the most obvious one."
A recent report from the Pew Research Centre signifies the importance of this trend, concluding many individuals believe proficiency in the local language is fundamental to belonging to their nation, followed closely by the sharing of cultural customs and being born within the country. This perspective varies based on factors such as age, education, and political ideology. Interestingly, younger and more educated populations are less inclined to regard language as integral to belonging, whereas supporters of right-wing populist parties frequently deem it indispensable.
Specifically, Hungary exhibits the highest percentage of individuals—74 percent—who deem the ability to speak the local language as central to national identity. France and the Netherlands come next at 64 percent, followed by Greece at 63 percent, Germany at 62 percent, and Poland at 60 percent. Italy and the UK follow at 58 percent each, with Sweden at 52 percent. It's worth noting, the latter statistic jumps to 83 percent among supporters of the far-right Sweden Democrats party. Silvestri argues, "Before the nation-state, religion was the identity marker...the 'social glue' linking diverse communities by shared sacred messages. The birth of the nation-state created new social constructs using various tools to unify the community, and language was the most immediate one."
This shift toward linguistic requirements contrasts sharply with perspectives held within Canada and the United States. According to the Pew survey, only 49 percent of Canadian respondents and 48 percent of Americans regard language as significant for belonging. Silvestri explains, "Both Canada and the US have historic ties to immigration and have evolved as multicultural societies, leading to diverse factors influencing national identity." On the contrary, the importance attributed to local customs significantly rises, with 38 percent of Canadians and 34 percent of Americans asserting it is "very important to follow local customs to truly belong."
The variance continues, as Hungary and Greece display the highest percentages—62 and 60 percent, respectively—of respondents who prioritize local customs, as opposed to only 39 percent in France. Silvestri notes, "This can also be interpreted through nationalist lenses since individuals access local customs and traditions through the knowledge of the language."
Within this nationalist framework, the relevance of multilingualism remains complex. Silvestri clarifies, "Multilingualism has no direct correlation with national identity. If national identity links closely with language, multilingualism does not inherently factor as identity or belonging. Rather, it serves as a tool for accessing texts and communicating. It fosters connections among different social groups. While it's important to have roots in one's native language, multilingualism allows for collaboration, sharing, and cultivating broader perspectives beyond national boundaries."
Indeed, as nationalist parties gain more traction, the trends surrounding access to language requirements for citizenship are likely to continue to evolve, raising questions about the balance between national identity and multicultural sensibilities. While language remains intertwined with social cohesion, multiculturalism and the appreciation of linguistic diversity play significant roles, reminding society of the richness found within its differences.